Sports Sociology from a feminist point of view

Sports Sociology from a feminist point of view Women participation in sports has a history marked by division and inequity. However, women have experiences major accomplishments by female athletes helping to make significant progress for gender equality and the empowerment of women. The essay will explain some of the historical developments with reference to different theoretical perspective of feminism such as liberal, radical and socialist feminisms. It will also critically discuss feminisms and how female are exploited by patriarchy society. Feminism is a dynamic, diverse and often conflicting collection of social theories and moral philosophies (Burke, 2008). It is similar to Marxism because both are political theories that were develop to solve the inequality, exploitation and poverty in society. While Marxism is largely motivated by the struggle of social class, feminism focuses on the experiences of women, particularly in terms of their political, social and economical inequalities. One prospective of feminism focuses on seeking no particular privileges but merely demand that everyone receive equal political, economical and social consideration without discrimination on the basis of sex (Adkins, 2004). Another opposing type of modern feminism, opposes existing political and social institution in general because its tied to a male dominated society. Thus, feminism has no single, universal form that represents all feminists. The rise of feminism movement can be divided into three waves. The first wave began in the late 1800s to early 1900s referring mainly to the statue of women in family and allowing womens right to vote known as the suffrage movement. The second wave refers to the action of the womens liberation movement beginning in the early 1950s which campaigned for social and legal equality for women. The third wave feminism began in the 1990s and embraced conflict, contradictions and accommodated diversity and change. Waves of Feminism The waves of feminism are a historical progression in each waves has bringing a swelling of momentum that carried women closer to equality in society. The early movement has come to known as the first wave which was established in United States and United Kingdom around the late 1800s to early 1900s. They major concerned was to help promote women equality in education, employment and property rights. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, many feminist such as Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Stone fought to gain more political power for women; particularly the right of womens suffrage. Woman did have success as a result of the 1st World War occur meaning women replaced men in civilian work-force and also served in the military support roles. Feminist also had significant success in reforms in education, and broadening access to different profession and in healthcare. It is considered that the first-wave came to end when the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed enabli ng women the right to vote (Lee Ling, 2001). The progression of first-wave feminism was significant; however, without the continuation of the second-wave, feminisms would not be as advance as it is in current times (can u think of another way can say that), for each wave is interrelated and dependent on each others history. In the early 1960s Second Wave of feminism emerged. Second-wave focuses was broader than the first-wave. It was concerned on inequalities such as the economic freedom, the rights for female to have abortion, equal and accessibility to certain male dominated institution such as sports. It also began to challenge the domination of patriarchy society and gender inequality in all aspects. In 1963 A Feminist named Betty Friedan publicised a landmark book called The Feminine Mystique. This book would be a pivotal moment in the history of second wave feminism. The book give an insight on how upper to middle class women felt discontented about their restricted opportunity in life (Changfoot, 2002). Friedan soon became one of the leading feminist in the Second wave, and eventually helped establish the National Organization for Women, whose purpose was to promote gender equality and to protect and support women rights. Perhaps one of the biggest achievements of Second Wave Feminism was in the United States by the passage of Title IX (Ackerly Attanasi, 2006). This enabled women to have access to education, particularly in university and professional schools. In addition, the work of these feminists allow employment opportunities that before had been confined to men accessible to women. The Third Wave of feminism that emerged in the 1990s and is still current to this day. Like all feminism, the third wave focuses on the social, economic, political and personal empowerment of women, but this differ to pervious waves because it concerns were more on the individual empowerment of women and less on activism. Ferguson (2002) commented on the third wave as a new direction for feminism to celebrates womens voyage to build meaningful identities in a complex contemporary world (p2). Third wave feminists celebrate diversity unlike previous waves and the Womens Liberation Movement; it was often criticized for focusing too narrowly on the events of middle-class, Caucasian and heterosexual women. Third wave feminists do not reject political activism, but the emphasis relies more on women personal empowerment as an initial point for societal change. Zinn and Dill (2005) propose there are multiple systems of domination that create inequality for women known as a matrix of dominati on. Feminist theories Feminism is not a unified or a simple philosophy. Many women and man consider themselves feminists; most of their ideology may vary considerably. The feminist theories aim to understand the nature of gender inequality, promoting womens rights, while generally providing a critique of social relations. This essay will focus on looking a liberal, socialist and radical feminism. Liberal feminism is characterized on the emphasis of wanting both genders to be equal within society. According to the theory, society itself does not need a major revolution, but rather propose that laws need to be changed and opportunities which enable more accessibly for women to become equal in society. To a liberal feminist, evidence of progress occurs when a number of women gain more positions previous occupied by men, particularly high end positions. In the United Kingdom and the major of the Western world, liberal feminism is the most common form of feminism. Gale, (2009) argues that even if women are no longer reliant upon men, they will still need to be governed by a patriarchal state. Radical Feminist argues institutional changes such as the introduction of womens suffrage are inadequate to emancipate women. In contrast socialist feminism emphasizes that equality for women will not be achieve without a significant change within society mainly economic change also socialist feminists focus on collective change and empowerment. Similar to Marxism, socialist feminists argue that there are basic inequalities built in to a capitalist society because capital and power are shared unequally. Thus, it not sufficient enough for women to achieve powerful positions in society, but power and capital need to be distributed equally (Fleck, 2004). Critic argues that socialist feminism neither is revolutionary nor radical enough to generate a solution to the difficulty for women economic and social exploitation. Another argument is not all male and female relationships are characterised by exploitation and oppression. Radical feminism is focuses on patriarchy and the system of power that organizes society. It is similar to socialist feminism in the sense that it emphasizes the need for severe social change for women to truly have equality. Radical feminists believe that society is very largely patriarchal, and as a result founds that women are oppressed. A criticism for radical feminism is it focuses much on the patriarchy society and need to consider the concepts such as ethnicity, religion and social class. Another criticism is reverse discrimination when women pushed unfairly into senior position. Feminism in sports Womens participation in sports has risen significantly in the twentieth century, particularly in the last quarter. It this partly due to the changes in modern societies that encourage gender parity. While the level of participation and performance still alters depending on the country and by sport. Although there has been many improvement in the accessibility in sport many feminist argue, that sports has been socially constructed hyper masculine, thus it has been more limited to men. Vale, (1998) found evidence to support this by looking at the incredible resistance to included women in certain mens institutions. Augusta National is the golf club which is also home to the Masters Tournament which does not allow women members to join. When women have tried to join the club or have made protest outside the parameter, the reaction from the club has boarded on hostility. As a results Vale, (1996) question if sport is so beneficial for men, why do men and institution, hold such resistant to offer all that is good in sport to women. Radical feminism have criticised the patriarchy society on how they portray women in sports. For example Sports Illustrated portrays women by presents demeaning stereotypes of female sexuality, encouraging men to view women as sex objects and by turning voyeurism into a sport.

“Meditation 17” by John Donne Essay

In â€Å"Meditation 17† by John Donne, Donne uses many different methods of trying to get his message out. By using metaphors, images, and paradoxes Donne gets his message out but in a perplexing way. In order to understand what Donne is saying, this passage must read over and analyzed sentence by sentence to really see the true meaning of the excerpt. Donne uses a book as a metaphor, with man as a chapter for every part of the book and God is the author. Donne believes God controls everything and everything happens for a reason. Donne then states, â€Å"God employs several translators; some pieces are translated by age, some by sickness, some by war, some by justice; but God’s hand is in every translation.† The translations of age, sickness, war, and justice are all things that can cause death. In that case, these elements can translate human beings into spirits of heaven or to anywhere else God chooses to send them. One of the most popular metaphors Donne uses is â€Å"No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory were any mans death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind; and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.† Here Donne is trying to say that one person cannot stand-alone. Human beings need each other for survival and support. Donne then starts to talk about the death bell. He says whenever the bell tolls it is tolling for more than the one person who has died but it also is tolling for those who have been left behind to grieve over the death. Also in order to get the message across Donne uses a paradox by saying, â€Å"For affliction is a treasure.† This is a paradox because generally when you think of a treasure you don’t think of it hurting you but you think of it making you wealthy or better off but instead he uses treasure as a source of suffering. But suffering is a treasure because it can teach you things, since you suffer from mistakes; you learn from them and don’t make the same mistake twice. By saying this Donne makes suffering sometimes seem like a  good thing to have in your life. Imagery is another device used to get Donne’s message across. â€Å"One chapter is not torn out of the book, but translated into a better language; and every chapter must be so translated† This is an image for the reason that he is presenting mankind and the death of mankind like a book. He is saying when a man dies he is not ripped away from society and forgotten but just thought of differently and every man dies (translated) in a different way although some may seem to be the same such as too people may have cancer yet it is still different because God has a unique death (translation) made out for each and every person. By using many different methods John Donne gets his message across in a complicated way that seems to draw the readers into his writing. By breaking down the passage it can be smoothly translated into an easy to read text. Not only does this make it enjoyable to read but also it has given people something to read for years and most defiantly will in the years to come.

Coherence and Cohesion

COHERENCE AND COHESION ========================================================== Abstract This paper discusses that a meaningful English text is always coherent. Also, the role of cohesion in a coherent English text is discussed in the light of literature. In order to further understand the significance of cohesion in discourse, we have analysed two English texts; a poem, ‘Daffodils' by William Wordsworth and an advertisement from a UK website gumtree. co. uk. A report is then developed on the textual analysis, which discusses that different genres have different elements that bring coherence.However, it is noticed that lexical cohesion forms strong cohesive ties and bring coherence in case of both the texts analysed. The paper argues that although cohesion is an important aspect of developing a coherent text, yet coherence is also possible without cohesion. Key words: Coherence, Cohesion, Text, Discourse, Analysis 1. INTRODUCTION The focus of this paper is to review the conce pt of coherence and the importance of cohesion in coherent texts. Coherence and cohesion are important aspects of language structure and knowledge of the usage of the two devices is essential for the scholars who write in English.Therefore, this paper has special significance for the readership of this journal as this paper helps understand the two concepts through their application. It tries to make the concepts interesting and easily grasped by the South Asian readers, through textual analysis of two simple texts. The paper also brings forth the importance of some other devices, apart from cohesion, in developing a coherent English text; these are also investigated in the sections discussing coherence. Firstly, we will introduce the terms cohesion and coherence as used in discourse analysis.Coherence is the device which identifies a text (a passage that forms a unified whole), spoken or written, in any language. On the other hand, cohesion is only one of the various elements which help forming coherent discourse. Cohesion provides relationship between different items of discourse in a text. Coherence is a semantic relation, so is cohesion. Coherence is possible when cohesive devices, grammatical and lexical, combine to give meaning to the text by connecting it to a social context. Most importantly, a coherent text can be found without any cohesive ties used.In the following sections, we will be discussing scholarly view on the two terms in some detail. We will then consider and clarify our position with regard to cohesion and its role in the coherent text. Later in this paper, we will be analysing the coherence (including, of course, the cohesion) in two pieces of discourse. The report on the comparison between the two analyses will follow. Finally, we will summarize the entire argument in the conclusion. 2. COHERENCE Every unified piece of discourse is a coherent set of sentences.Davies (2005) explains the idea of a text when she says, â€Å"not all sequen ces of sentences form texts- they have to be coherent sequences†. Thus she marks coherence as an identity of a text. Halliday and Hassan (1976) followed by McCarthy (1991) and Paltridge (2006) used the term texture or textuality for coherence. Paltridge (2006) writes that the texture of a text can be obtained where various items are tied together to provide meaning to the text which in turn relate to the social context in which the text occurs. Hassan (1989:71; cited in Paltridge, 2006:130) describes texture as ‘a matter of meaning relations’.Brown and Yule (1983) explain that in a coherent text the meaning is clear and the various fragments of the text seem connected either with or without cohesive devices. Hatch (1992) defines that the textual coherences can be obtained only if the communication system, the social norms and restrictions, language scripts for particular speech acts, suitable for particular speech events are all considered carefully. Thus, Brown a nd Yule (1983) and Hatch (1992) clearly mention that, apart from cohesive ties, there are other elements involved in obtaining coherence.The various elements (excluding cohesion) involved in a coherent text, as noted by discourse analysts, include, context, schema, subtext and exophoric reference. Every text has a context, says Paltridge (2006). He finds that a context of the situation is essential to understand what is meant by what is said. He includes physical and social context and the mental world of the people involved in a discourse to be crucial in interpreting and understanding the meaning. McCarthy (1991) discusses the role of context but he warns about mixing it with co-text (the text surrounding a lexical item), which he mentions to be only a part of the roader term, ‘context’. Hatch (1992), however, discusses context under the heading of deixis. Deixis, according to him, are ‘linguistic markers that have a pointing function in a given discourse contex t’. He, thus, discusses that person, spatial, temporal, discourse and social deixis describe the context of a text. Davies (2005) also mentions the role of context and subtext (reading between the lines) as important to the coherence of any text. McCarthy (1991:168) describes schema as ‘the role of background knowledge’ in understanding the text.According to him, schemata involve two kinds of knowledge; the knowledge of the world (content schemata) and the knowledge of the different forms of the text (formal schemata). Some scholars including Halliday and Hassan (1976) include exophoric reference in the cohesive device of reference; I have also discussed it there. 3. COHESION Halliday and Hassan (1976) were the first significant writers on the subject (cohesion). They drew the attention towards the importance of cohesion which, for them, refers to ‘the range of possibilities that exist from linking something with what has gone before’.Halliday and Ha ssan continue that one of the items in the cohesive pair cannot be completely and effectively understood without consulting the other and both of these form important part of the text. Most other writers on the subject then explained the term following Halliday and Hassan. Zamel (1983) finds the role of the cohesive devices to be crucial as they can turn separate expression into a unified whole by developing relationships between those separate expression. Cook (1989) defines cohesive devices as formal links between sentences and clauses.Dubin and Olshtain (1980:356; cited in Zamel, 1983) remark, ‘The most important characteristic of cohesion is the fact that it does not constitute a class of items but rather a set of relations'. A similar, rather more comprehensive view, is given by Halliday and Hassan that cohesion is a semantic relation and therefore, is independent of grammatical structure, for example, sentence boundaries etc. To this, Steffensen (1986) added that the int ersentential ties are more important than the intrasentential ties.The reason behind this is, of course, that there are no other structural relations present between sentences, as are present within a sentence. Halliday and Hassan have explained this idea, before Steffensen, as; the cohesive ties between sentences are more noticeable than those within a sentence because in a sentence there are other sources of texture as well. 3. 1 Various Cohesive Devices Halliday and Hassan (1976) discuss Cohesion under five heads, reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion.But according to them, cohesion can be broadly classified as grammatical (reference, substitution, ellipsis) and lexical (reiteration, collocation). Halliday and Hassan keep conjunction on the borderline of the grammatical and lexical cohesion with the greater tilt on the grammatical side. Similar views are shared by Steffensen (1986), Hatch (1992:223) and Paltridge (2006:130). Following Halliday and Ha ssan, we will also be reviewing literature under the same five heads. Reference, in the words of Paltridge (2006), is the identity that an item of discourse reclaims through another item within or without the text.Referencing device, as noted by Cook (1989), usually, forms a chain that links the expressions through the text. He exemplifies this as, Pineapple†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. it†¦. Halliday and Hassan (1976) also present a similar definition with a further explanation that when one item of the language appears second time in the discourse that is the continuity of reference. Salkie (1995) explains referents (‘it’ in the above example) as the words which do not have a complete meaning on their own, they always refer to something. Considering the same, Brown and Yule (1983) suggest the term co-reference for reference.Salkie (1995), as well as Hatch (1992), agree with Halliday and Hass an over the three types of cohesive references i. e. personal, demonstrative and comparative references. Apart from this, Halliday and Hassan remark that when the interpretation for the references is present in the text, it is called an endophoric reference, and when the interpretation lies outside the text, it is an exophoric reference. Halliday and Hassan further divide endophoric reference into anaphoric reference (looks back into the text) and cataphoric reference (looks forward into the text).Brown and Yule (1983) agree with Halliday and Hassan in their description of these terms. McCarthy (1991), however, discards exophoric referents as truly cohesive because they are not the internal part of the text. While Halliday and Hassan explain that they play a role in the understanding of the text so they are cohesive. On the contrary, Paltridge (2006) introduces another reference pattern too, that is, homophoric reference, for items which recover their identity through cultural knowl edge. Substitution, simply, is ‘the replacement of one item by another’ remark Halliday and Hassan (1976).They find substitution to be a cohesive relation between wordings and not between the meanings, as is reference. Hatch (1992) notes that Levinson (1983) claims substitutions to be deictic markers. But Hatch agrees with Halliday and Hassan that the substitution and the group of words substituted form a cohesive tie. Salkie (1995) notifies that only some specific words can be used for the purpose of substitution. And Halliday and Hassan (1976) present the following list of substitutes: Nominal: one, ones; same Verbal: do Clausal: so, notIn addition, Halliday and Hassan also observe that sometimes substitution, also, borders with lexical cohesion, that is where words like ‘thing’ are used for the cohesive purposes. Substitutions thus hold very important cohesive function, as Cook (1989) mentions that the brief forms of the sentences with substitutions are more authentic than the longer sentences without substitutions. Ellipsis, the third type of cohesive marker, as named by Hatch (1992), is a zero tie. Halliday and Hassan (1976) call it substitution by zero.Actually there is no tie in ellipsis and nothing substitutes but of course, like substitution, here too, something is left unsaid. Salkie (1995) makes it clear that every unsaid or left out expression cannot be considered an example of ellipsis. On the contrary, he writes, ellipsis is a gap or unsaid information that is known to the listener/reader of the text already, as it refers back to something already said. Cook (1989) shares a similar view with Salkie when Cook says that we can omit only when we are sure that the meaning can be understood without it.McCarthy (1991) also holds the same idea and he adds to it by mentioning that ellipsis is completely ‘a speaker choice made on a pragmatic assessment of the situation, not a compulsory feature when two clauses are joined t ogether’. McCarthy (1991) notes that, in English, substitution and ellipsis are similar as the former like the latter operates on nominal, verbal and clausal level. This view is shared by Halliday and Hassan (1976), Hatch (1992) and Salkie (1995). Conjunctions can be defined best in the words ofCook (1989) as, the words which draw attention towards the relationships between sentences, clauses and words. McCarthy (1991) places conjunction among the grammatical cohesive devices, despite accepting it to be different from reference, substitution and ellipsis. He says, though it does refer to something backward or forward in the text, it still provides a relationship between the fragments of the language. A similar view is shared by Halliday and Hassan (1976) that conjunctive ties are ‘cohesive not in themselves’, but by their meaning, they point at other elements in the discourse.However, unlike McCarthy, Halliday and Hassan, followed by Steffensen (1986), Hatch (199 2) and Paltridge (2006), do not believe conjunctions to be completely grammatical. Halliday and Hassan (1976) observe that conjunctions can be classified in different ways, focusing different aspects. They, then, present additive, adversative, causal and temporal as four, commonly accepted, types of conjunctive relation. Hatch (1992) also presents the similar distribution. Martin and Rose (2003; cited in Paltridge, 2006:139) use the term consequential for causal.Although Salkie (1995) also gives the same four types of conjunction, yet he uses different terminology; he calls them addition connectives, opposition connectives, cause connectives and time connectives. Besides, he uses the term connective for conjunction. Lexical cohesion is a relationship between vocabulary items in the text. In the words of Paltridge (2006:133), â€Å"Lexical cohesion refers to relationships in meaning between lexical items in a text and, in particular, content words and the relationship between themâ € .Hatch (1992) notes that some lexical ties are long, as they are spread over larger pieces of discourse, and others are short. Reiteration and collocation are marked as two major types of lexical cohesion by Halliday and Hassan (1976). McCarthy (1991), however, does not seem to be convinced by Halliday and Hassan’s inclusion of collocation among the devices of lexical cohesion. He does not find that collocation can present a semantic relation between various items of discourse as other cohesive markers do. Unlike McCarthy, Hatch (1992) finds collocation to be an important element for building text cohesion.So does Paltridge (2006), who says, that expert writers of the language know which items can collocate. Lexical collocation, grammatical collocation and idiomatic collocation are found in discourse. McCarthy (1991) defines reiteration as restating a word (or a phrase) by either direct repetition or using the lexical relations for that word (for example, synonyms, anton yms, hypernyms, meronyms etc). Salkie (1995) explains that the repetition of the content words brings cohesion; what he says of repetition is true for all the lexical devices.Making a decision regarding the usage of various lexical items is only a matter of understanding the importance of different lexical relations. McCarthy (1991) observes that the speaker/writer has to decide whether to repeat, or use a synonym or a super ordinate etc, because discourse analysts have not yet given any satisfactory rules for that. 3. 2 Relation between Coherence and Cohesion Halliday and Hassan (1976) refer to cohesion as being a source of coherence. But Carrell (1982) strongly disagrees with them on that view. She finds cohesion to be nothing more than a result of coherence.Carrell quotes Morgan and Sellner (1980) who also find Halliday and Hassan to be mistaking. Morgan and Sellner explain that when Halliday and Hassan are mentioning that a referent refers back or forth to something in the text, it is not something in the text actually but something in the context, from which the reader and the hearer understands what the speaker/writer is talking about. Carrell herself is also supporting the idea by Morgan and Sellner and believes it to be the content and not the cohesion between the expressions which bring coherence to the text.In the commonly quoted example by Halliday and Hassan: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish. Carrell finds that them in the second sentence does not refer to the apples in the first sentence but some real world apples. Brown and Yule (1983) present a more convincing argument against Halliday and Hassan that the apples, in the first sentence, are as they were brought from the market while those in the second sentence are washed and cored apples and therefore not the same as in the first sentence.They argued similarly for the other cohesive devices like substitution and ellipsis. Brown and Yule (1983) observe that some pi eces of discourse, can be said to be unconnected due to lack of cohesive devices, but they still form coherent text (for example; advertisements, brochures etc) because different genres of discourse have different criteria of coherence. Where Carrell fully ignores the importance of cohesion in coherence, Brown and Yule at least agree that different genres of text demand different criteria of coherence.Hatch (1992) sounds more acceptable, when he says that the knowledge of script, speech events and rhetorical organisation usually results in a coherent text but sometimes, we need to make use of cohesive ties and deictic markers to guide the listener/reader through the text. The formal links (cohesive devices), according to Cook (1989) also, are not enough or necessary for a text. He means to say that there can be a text without them and there can even be an incoherent piece with them. He as well as Salkie (1995) holds the understanding of the context as more important.Davies (2005) cl arifies all the misconceptions, â€Å"coherence does not have to depend on logical internal links and familiar patterns of organisation- it also has a lot to do with how we interpret the language we read or hear†. To conclude, the argument let us quote McCarthy (1991) who says, all discourse markers including cohesive markers are concerned with the text on the surface level. He, like Davies, marks that the interpretation is the key that the listener/reader uses to understand what the speaker/writer has tried to say by utilising both above and below the surface available devices.Therefore, cohesion is not a criterion for coherence yet it is an important element in some genres of discourse. 4. TEXT ANALYSIS After reviewing the scholars on coherence, cohesion, cohesive devices and relation between coherence and cohesion, we are, now, turning to analyse two written texts; the poem ‘Daffodils’ by William Wordsworth (see Appendix-A for the original text) and a job adve rtisement that we found on www. gumtree. co. uk (see Appendix-B for the original text).After this, we will present the report on whether cohesion is required or just the context, schema, sub-text and exophoric reference are enough for coherence in these two genres of discourse. 4. 1 Analysis of the Poem ‘Daffodils’ Firstly, we are going to analyse the poem, from the different perspectives of coherence. We will start with the context. 4. 1. 1 Context The very first word ‘I’ tells us that the speaker or the poet is sharing a personal experience. ‘Wandered’, being the second form of the verb, clears that the incident that is quoted in the poem has ended.It is one of the experiences of the poet when he saw a beautiful scene and now he is describing the scene and is discussing the pleasure it has been giving him since the time he has first seen it. The text belongs to the place where there is a lake, there are trees and most importantly, there are d affodils. Thus the poet is recollecting his memory of a beautiful outdoor scene when he was caught by the sight of golden daffodils. The poet mentions that he was alone at that time. The beauty of the scene has been deep-rooted in the memory of the poet.The memory of the flowers works as an effective tranquiliser at the time when the poet is worried or sad. Coherence, here, operates the relationship of a poet to the natural world of beauty. It exemplifies how a poet, who is alone (no other human being around), is enjoying the company of the flowers and can enjoy that of other objects of nature. He is enjoying the beauty even when he is away from it and even when he feels sad, may be due to the problems of the material world. 4. 1. 2 SchemaIt is sure since the beginning that the poet is somewhere outside his home because it is very unlikely that somebody moves around in his house and say â€Å"I wandered lonely as a cloud. † It is also unlikely that the poet is in the market o r some other busy area and claim to be wandering like a cloud because the schemata, in both the mentioned situations, would have suggested some different social norms. Therefore, from the beginning the reader starts to interpret that the poet is alone in some lonely place. 4. 1. 3 SubtextOne can judge that it is the day time that is why the poet can see so many daffodils, which are spread along the bank of the river. Besides, he mentions â€Å"the waves besides them danced†, which can be noticed only during the day time. In dark one can see waves only if they are harsh and roaring, which can of course never attract the calm and peaceful nature of a poet. And since it is breezy, it can be the morning time, not the noon, afternoon or evening. The pleasantness of the weather can easily be found from the mood of the poet. It seems as if it is some breezy summer morning. Oft† notifies that the poet also feels sad and empty at times, he also has worries of life like other hum an beings. But then unlike an ordinary man, these flowers come to the rescue of the poet from the worries of the world. 4. 1. 4 Exophoric Reference There is some exophoric knowledge of the concept of â€Å"inward eye† required. The poet assumes the reader, who will be decoding the text of the poem, must already be aware with this schema. After context, schema, sub-text and exophoric reference, now, I will analyse the role of various cohesive ties in bringing the coherence to the poem.First of all, we are going to for the referential cohesion. 4. 1. 5 Referential Cohesion The pronominal references, running through the text, have anaphoric links and they were all endophoric except the exophoric reference â€Å"that inward eye† (discussed earlier). Pronominal cohesion depends largely on the anaphoric link to the first word of the text I (I, I, me, my, I). Amongst the other anaphoric personal references there is a cohesive chain of â€Å"they† and â€Å"them† (used for Daffodils) throughout the poem.The pronoun â€Å"that† is used for the word cloud in the first stanza and for the word stars in the second. Also, â€Å"which† in the last stanza is pronominal and is used for inward eye. There is an example of demonstrative cohesion also i. e. â€Å"my† in the phrase my heart. Comparative reference plays a part in introducing the situation in the first line of the poem, I wandered lonely as a cloud in which there is a comparison drawn between the poet and the cloud. Comparative reference is also present in the following line where daffodils are compared with stars, Continuous as the stars that shineThere is a single example of nominal substitution through the words the show, which refers to the dancing daffodils and their company (the waves etc). Clausal ellipsis is found in following three examples: ______ fluttering and dancing _____tossing their heads, a poet could not______ but ______be gay ______continuous as star s that shine While nominal ellipsis is clear in these three: And _______twinkle on the milky way Ten thousand ______ saw I at a glance And ______dances with the daffodils 4. 1. 6 Conjunction The poem contains some variety of conjunction also.Additive Conjunctions â€Å"and†, â€Å"or†, adversative conjunction â€Å"but† and temporal conjunctions â€Å"oft†, â€Å"then† are found in the text. 4. 1. 7 Lexical Cohesion Throughout the poem, I can see words like â€Å"twinkle†, â€Å"sprightly†, â€Å"sparkle† spread which form a sense group, such reiteration shows that the situation in the poem is lively, excited and pleasure-giving. Synonymy is present among the words â€Å"crowd† and â€Å"host† (both in the first stanza) as the terms are contextual synonyms. So is the case with â€Å"shine† and â€Å"twinkle† (both in the second stanza), and â€Å"lake† (in the first stanza) and â€Å"bay† (in the second stanza).Other sense group is formed by â€Å"fluttering†, â€Å"dancing† and â€Å"tossing their heads†. A small chain of words related to the notion of happiness is spread around the third stanza â€Å"glee†, â€Å"gay†, â€Å"jocund†. Repetition is found through the forms of the word â€Å"dance† (dancing, dance, danced, dances). The words â€Å"gazed† is repeated twice. A number of lexical collocations (contextually appropriate) can be found, for example: â€Å"over valleys and hills†, â€Å"never-ending line†, â€Å"beside the lake†, â€Å"beneath the trees†, â€Å"at a glance†.Whereas â€Å"out did† and â€Å"flash upon† are grammatical collocations present within the text. The analysis of this text shows that besides other devices of coherence, cohesion also plays an important role in bringing the coherence to the text. We cannot think of the above poem wi thout the cohesive ties. 4. 2 Analysis of the Advertisement Now we are going to analyse the second text which is a job advertisement (see Appendix-B). Here too we start with the analysis with the context. 4. 2. 1 ContextThe first line suggests that it is something related to the business but it is only in the fourth line that one realises that it is an advertisement for the post of â€Å"Business development support†. And even in the next line, the reader comes to know that it is a job advertised by â€Å"Metro Safety†. â€Å"We† in the new paragraph shows the management of Metro Safety or the company has advertised this job. The second line mentions the date on which the advertisement is posted so it clarifies whether it is old or new. And the name of the company and the location of the office present the place of work.The objectives for the job and the mentioned requirements clear who can apply for the advertisement. Therefore the context is clear after readin g the whole of it that it is a job opportunity for all those who have the required experience etc. The ‘how to do the follow up? ’ part is made clear by the last sentence which guides how to apply. 4. 2. 2 Schema By the opening of the text we start to recognise the schema. It is without doubt an advertisement which is written to attract professionals. Just in the beginning schema provide the strong suggestion for the post, the salary and location of the work.The text is schematically clear and therefore it does not bring any possible alternative schemata into question. 4. 2. 3 Subtext We realise that it is not a regular text but an advertisement. Since the advertisement is posted on the mentioned date therefore the job seeker can apply within few days of it. Though it is not mentioned yet the job is provided on the first come basis, because there is no specific date for interviews, etc, mentioned, therefore whoever will be the first to fulfil the criteria will be given the job.The job seeker must be a resident of London, and in case of a city like London, he must be living somewhere around Waterloo. 4. 2. 4 Exophoric Reference â€Å"Friday, 6th June† is mentioned in the advertisement; the reader should have the exophoric knowledge of which year’s 6th June is the advertisement about. Besides the reader must know that Waterloo (mentioned in the advertisement as the location of work) is an area in London and not the place of the Battle of Waterloo. Following is the analysis of the second text for cohesive devices. 4. 2. 5 Referential CohesionThe pronominal endophoric references â€Å"we† and â€Å"our† refer to the Metro Safety, the company which has given the advertisement. And â€Å"you† refers to the reader or anyone who is interested in the job. But â€Å"someone† in â€Å"we are looking for someone† is an exophoric reference because it is not the reader or any aspirant for the job who is reading t he advertisement and is going to apply, rather it is someone they are looking for, he can be anyone of the readers or even no one of them. â€Å"This† in â€Å"this role† and â€Å"this position† is a demonstrative reference. Nominal ellipsis is present in the following: lease _____ apply; While clausal ellipsis can be found in the following: and _____ assists Accounts Managers, _____ increase, _____ smooth, _____ to provide, _____ provide Language in India www. languageinindia. com 12 : 5 May 2012 Ambreen Shahriar and Habibullah Pathan Coherence and the Role of Cohesion in Coherent Texts 384 Besides, ellipsis is done through points given in bullets (. ). 4. 2. 6 Conjunction The conjunction â€Å"and† has been used repeatedly in the text. Temporal conjunction â€Å"between† is present in the phrase â€Å"between ? 16,800 and ? 20,160 per annum†.The additive conjunction â€Å"in addition† is also used, and â€Å"+†, in â€Å"+ company bonus† also acts as an additive conjunction. 4. 2. 7 Lexical Cohesion In the text, there is a chain of office related words, â€Å"business†, â€Å"company†, â€Å"bonus†, â€Å"commercial†, â€Å"client†, â€Å"head office†, â€Å"account managers†, â€Å"project managing†, â€Å"service departments†, â€Å"site†, â€Å"administrative supports†, â€Å"management team†, â€Å"customer†. The terms like; â€Å"increase†, â€Å"necessary†, â€Å"high quality†, â€Å"skills†, â€Å"experience†, â€Å"excellent† form a sense group which explains the demands of the employer from the employee.The word â€Å"client† presents an example of repetition and seems to be the key term in the text, it is used four times. The examples of meronymy are spread throughout the text. â€Å"Client†, â€Å"services team†, â€Å"account manag ers†, â€Å"project managing†, â€Å"internal departments†, â€Å"service departments†, â€Å"management team†, â€Å"customer focus†, â€Å"company bonus†; with â€Å"business† as the super ordinate. Besides, â€Å"communication skills (verbal and written)†, â€Å"information gathering and organisational skills†, â€Å"problem solving skills† and â€Å"IT literacy† can be considered as the hypernyms for skills/knowledge.Lexical cohesion can also be witnessed through phrases like, â€Å"health and safety†, â€Å"busy and friendly†, â€Å"new and existing†. There is grammatical collocation of the phrasal verbs like, â€Å"based at†, â€Å"set up† and â€Å"looking for†. Lexical collocations can also be identified within the text, for example: â€Å"head office†, â€Å"account managers†, â€Å"high quality†, â€Å"communicational skillsâ₠¬ , â€Å"organizational skills†, â€Å"problem solving skills†, â€Å"sales team†, â€Å"company bonus†, â€Å"per annum†. After the analyses of the texts, we are going to present the report on them in the next section. . REPORT In the report, firstly, we are going to compare the two texts in accordance with the findings. Though the poet, in the first text, clears the context from the first line, but it can be cleared only after reading the last lines and then pondering over all that is written. Whereas in the advertisement, the context starts to get clearer from the fourth line, when it comes to the offer of salary and one realises that it is a job advertisement, but immediately after that the context is clear and reader does not have to read between the lines.Both the texts are schematically clear yet they are completely different from each other. The writers of the two texts have made greatest efforts to keep the schema clear but in variant st yles and this is what proves a difference in the different genres of writing. There are some elements of the sub-text in both the texts. The readers of both the texts have to read between the lines and understand a few hidden ideas on their own, but the nature of such ideas in both these texts is very different. Some exophoric knowledge is required for complete understanding of each text.Here, also, the exophoric knowledge in case of the poem is of emotional and spiritual nature while in case of the advertisement it is of material and worldly nature. As in the poem, so is in the advertisement, most of the pronominal references were endophoric in nature with anaphoric cohesion. The examples of demonstrative cohesion are rare in both the texts. There seems no example of comparative reference in the advertisement. Unlike this, the comparative cohesive devices are widely used in the analysed poem. As comparative references are usually common in the poetry, so are they here.But they are not welcome in advertisements. The analysis showed that substitution is a rare phenomenon in these types of texts. It does not appear to be common in poetry or advertises. Both of these are the examples of smaller texts but in spite of that substitution is not common in these two. Nominal as well as clausal ellipsis seems to be among the favourites of the two writers (of poem and advertisement). Ellipsis can be considered as a common practice of the writers of such texts. Conjunctions are found evenly spread in both the texts with a greater emphasis on â€Å"and† in both the texts.Few small sense groups are present in the poetry, while two long sense chains are present in the advertisement. Formation of sense groups is an essential quality of an advertisement but not a poem. Repetitions are also found in both the texts which, of course, emphasize the most important word in the text. Synonymy can be found in the poem only. It is a special quality of something literary and it i s used to give music to the meaning of the text. But antonymy is missing in both the texts. Hyponymy and meronymy are absent in the poem by Wordsworth but both are present in the advertisement.This explains the difference between the two types of the text. The poem is a short text which has to say a lot whereas an advertisement is a short text which has to say a little but has to make it completely clear. Lexical and grammatical collocations are present in both the texts but idiomatic collocation is missing. Idiomatic collocation is found in longer pieces of writing, and are uncommon in poetry and advertisements, even otherwise. After comparing the two texts, it can be noticed that since the two belong to different genres, their dependence on the various elements, which are responsible for coherence, is also different.Yet cohesive ties, especially lexical cohesion, form important links which in turn provide coherence to both the texts. 6. CONCLUSION Through this paper, we have discu ssed the terms coherence and cohesion. We mentioned that other elements of discourse, besides cohesion, can also help in the development of a coherent text in English. We also mentioned the varying views of the scholars regarding the importance and role of cohesion in the development of a coherent discourse.We made our point clear by quoting Davies and McCarthy, who note that it mainly depends on the interpretation besides accepting that the importance of cohesion in some genres of discourse is undeniable. Through the analysis of the two texts belonging to two different genres, we tried to explain what brings coherence in each of the selected genres. Then, we presented the report on the analyses. Therefore, cohesion, of course, is not the only source of bringing coherence to a text yet it is one of the important aspects of coherence. ============================================================= ReferencesBrown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: CUP. Carrell, P. L. 1982. ‘Cohesion is not coherence,’ TESOL Quarterly 16(4): 479-88. Cook, G. 1989. Discourse. Oxford: OUP. Davies, D. 2005. Varieties of Modern English: An Introduction. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Language in India www. languageinindia. com 12 : 5 May 2012 Ambreen Shahriar and Habibullah Pathan Coherence and the Role of Cohesion in Coherent Texts 387 Dubin, F. and E. Olshtain. 1980. ‘The interface of writing and reading,’ TESOL Quarterly 14(3): 353-63. Halliday, M. A. K. and R. Hassan. 976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman Group Ltd. Hassan, R. 1989. ‘The texture of a text’: in M. A. K. Halliday and R. Hassan (eds. ) Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: OUP. pp. 70-96. Hatch, E. 1992. Discourse and Language Education. Cambridge: CUP. Levinson, S. 1983. Pragmatics. New York: CUP. Martin, J. R. and D. Rose. 2003. Working with Discourse: Meaning beyond the Clause. London: Continuum. M cCarthy, M. 1991. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: CUP. Morgan, J. L. and M. B. Sellner. 980. ‘Discourse and linguistic theory’: in R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bertram and W. F. Brewer (eds. ) Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension. Hills dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Paltridge, B. 2006. Discourse Analysis. London: Continuum. Salkie, R. 1995. Text and Discourse Analysis. London: Routledge. Steffensen, M. 1986. ‘Register, cohesion, and cross-cultural reading comprehension,’ in Applied Linguistics 7(1): 71-85. Wordsworth, W. (2008). Selected Poems. Oxford:OUP. Zamel, V. 1983. ‘Teaching those missing links in writing,’ in ELT Journal 7(1): 22-29.

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